Psychometric properties of the Diurnal Insomnia Symptoms Response Scale (DISRS) in a Mexican population sample APPENDIX / Propiedades psicométricas de la Escala de Respuestas a los Síntomas Diurnos del Insomnio (DISRS) en una muestra de población mexicana

Abstract Introduction Increased rumination is associated with longer night-time sleep onset latency and poorer sleep quality and efficiency in people with insomnia symptoms. Objective To validate the Diurnal Insomnia Symptoms Response Scale (DISRS) in a general population sample. Method 102 participants (women = 67 and men = 35) comprising patients and relatives who attended an outpatient consultation at a health center in Mexico City were evaluated. The English-Spanish-English translation system was used by two Spanish-speaking experts on the subject, an independent bilingual expert translated the new version of the scale into English, which was then compared with the original. The following self-administered questionnaires were used to evaluate the convergent, discriminant validity of this tool: the Ruminative Response Scale (RRS), the Insomnia Severity Index (ISI), and Penn State Worry Questionnaire (PSWQ). Results The internal consistency of the scale items was α = .93. Principal components factor analysis yielded three factors with an eigenvalue of greater than one, which together explain 59.5% of the variance. Correlations between the total DISRS score and the cognitive-motivational dimensions (r = .938, p < .01), negative state (r = .898, p < .01) and tiredness (r = .853, p < .01) were statistically significant. Insomnia symptoms (SCC = .89) outweighed worries (SCC = .33) and ruminant responses (SCC = .33) when discriminating between cases with low and high levels of rumination associated with insomnia symptoms. Discussion and conclusion Our results suggest that the DISRS scale has adequate psychometric properties that make it valid and reliable for use with the Mexican population.

Resumen Introducción Los pensamientos rumiativos se asocian con mayor latencia del sueño, peor calidad y eficiencia de sueño en personas con insomnio. Objetivo Realizar la validación de la escala de respuestas a los síntomas diurnos del insomnio (DISRS) en una muestra de población general en México. Método Se evaluaron a 102 participantes (mujeres = 67 y hombres = 35) que acudieron a consulta externa de un centro de salud de la Ciudad de México. Se utilizó el sistema de traducción inglés-español-inglés, un experto bilingüe independiente tradujo al inglés la nueva versión de la escala y se verificó con el original. Para evaluar la validez convergente y discriminante del DISRS, se aplicó la Escala de Respuestas Rumiativas (RRS), el Índice de Severidad del Insomnio (ISI) y el Cuestionario de Preocupaciones de Pensilvania (PSWQ). Resultados La consistencia interna de los ítems fue α = .93. El análisis factorial de componentes principales determinó tres factores con valor propio superior a uno, que explican 59.5% de la varianza. Las correlaciones del puntaje del DISRS con las dimensiones cognitivo-motivacional (r = .938, p < .01), estado negativo (r = .898, p < .01) y cansancio (r = .853, p < .01) resultaron significativas. Los síntomas de insomnio (CCE =.89) tuvieron más peso que las preocupaciones (CCE = .33) y las respuestas rumiativas (CCE = .33) al discriminar a los casos con bajos y altos niveles de rumiación asociada al insomnio. Discusión y conclusión La escala DISRS en español tiene adecuadas propiedades psicométricas que la hacen válida y confiable para ser utilizada en población mexicana.

Detección del consumo de alcohol en el primer nivel de atención en México durante la pandemia de COVID-19 / Detection of alcohol consumption at the first level of care in Mexico during the COVID-19 pandemic / Detecção do consumo de álcool no nível da atenção primária no México durante a pandemia de COVID-19

RESUMEN Objetivo. Medir el efecto de la pandemia de COVID-19 en la implementación de un programa de detección oportuna, intervención breve y referencia para tratamiento por consumo de alcohol en centros de salud del primer nivel de atención de la Ciudad de México. Métodos. Se recopilaron los datos en 18 centros de salud de la Ciudad de México entre 2019 y 2021, como parte de un estudio más amplio. Participaron 287 profesionales de la salud, quienes midieron el consumo de alcohol de sus pacientes con la prueba AUDIT-C. Se analizaron aspectos demográficos y patrones de consumo de los pacientes, así como las acciones de atención (detección, intervención breve, entrega de folletos, monitoreo y referencia) en tres momentos: antes de la pandemia de COVID-19, durante el confinamiento y luego del confinamiento. Se realizaron pruebas paramétricas y no paramétricas para identificar la relación y las diferencias entre las variables en los tres períodos. Resultados. Se identificaron 9 090 personas con consumo de alcohol; el porcentaje de detección del consumo tuvo fluctuaciones en los tres períodos estudiados (26%, 53% y 37%, respectivamente). El consumo de riesgo medio y alto fue más frecuente entre hombres jóvenes y con mayor escolaridad durante y después del confinamiento. En el período posconfinamiento aumentaron las acciones de monitoreo y referencia. Conclusiones. La medición del impacto de la pandemia en la implementación de un programa de detección oportuna, asesoramiento breve y referencia para el tratamiento del consumo de alcohol en centros de salud ayuda a elaborar políticas en salud por edad, género, escolaridad y tipo de consumo para el primer nivel de atención.

ABSTRACT Objective. To measure the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the implementation of a program for timely detection, brief intervention, and referral for treatment of alcohol consumption in health centers at the first level of care in Mexico City. Methods. The data were collected at 18 health centers in Mexico City between 2019 and 2021, as part of a larger study. A total of 287 participating health professionals measured their patients' alcohol consumption using the AUDIT-C test. The patients' demographic aspects and consumption patterns were analyzed, as well as care actions (detection, brief intervention, provision of leaflets, monitoring, and referral) at three points in time: before the COVID-19 pandemic, during confinement, and after confinement. Parametric and nonparametric tests were performed to identify the relationship and differences between the variables at the three points. Results. A total of 9090 people who consumed alcohol were identified; detection of consumption fluctuated in the three periods studied (26%, 53%, and 37%, respectively). Medium- and high-risk consumption was more frequent among young men with higher schooling during and after confinement. In the post-confinement period, monitoring and referral actions increased. Conclusions. Measuring the impact of the pandemic on the implementation of a program for timely detection of alcohol consumption, brief intervention, and referral for treatment in health centers helps to develop health policies by age, gender, schooling, and type of consumption at the first level of care.

RESUMO Objetivo. Medir o efeito da pandemia de COVID-19 na implementação de um programa de detecção oportuna, intervenção breve e encaminhamento para tratamento pelo consumo de álcool em centros de saúde no nível da atenção primária na Cidade do México. Métodos. Foram coletados dados em 18 centros de saúde na Cidade do México entre 2019 e 2021, como parte de um estudo mais amplo. Participaram 287 profissionais de saúde, que mediram o consumo de álcool de seus pacientes com o teste AUDIT-C. Foram analisados aspectos demográficos e o padrão de consumo dos pacientes, bem como as medidas em termos de atendimento (triagem, intervenção breve, entrega de folhetos, monitoramento e encaminhamento) em três momentos: antes da pandemia de COVID-19, durante o confinamento e após o confinamento. Foram feitos testes paramétricos e não paramétricos para identificar a relação e as diferenças entre as variáveis nos três períodos. Resultados. Foram identificadas 9.090 pessoas com consumo de álcool, sendo que a porcentagem de consumo detectada flutuou nos três períodos estudados (26%, 53% e 37%, respectivamente). O consumo de médio e alto risco foi mais prevalente entre homens jovens e com nível maior de escolaridade durante e após o confinamento. No período posterior ao confinamento, as medidas de monitoramento e encaminhamento aumentaram. Conclusões. Medir o impacto da pandemia na implementação de um programa de detecção oportuna, intervenção breve e encaminhamento para tratamento do consumo de álcool em centros de saúde ajuda na formulação de políticas de saúde por idade, gênero, escolaridade e tipo de consumo para o primeiro nível de atenção.

Factores asociados con el consumo excesivo de alcohol: Encuesta Nacional de Salud y Nutrición 2020 sobre Covid-19 / Factors associated with binge drinking: National Health and Nutrition Survey 2020, Covid-19

Resumen: Objetivo: Conocer la magnitud del consumo excesivo de alcohol (CEA) y su asociación con los factores individuales, familiares y sociales entre agosto y noviembre de 2020 en México. Material y métodos: Con base en los datos de la Encuesta Nacional de Salud y Nutrición 2020 sobre Covid-19, se analizaron 8 595 adultos mayores de 20 años. Se estimaron modelos de regresión logística estratificados por sexo y se obtuvieron razones de momios (RM) con intervalos de confianza al 95% (IC95%). Resultados: El CEA fue de 40.43%; hombres 56.49% y mujeres 25.70%. Los principales factores asociados fueron ser hombre (RM=3.66; IC95%: 3.22,4.12), edad de 20 a 29 años (RM=3.65; IC95%: 2.89,4.63), salir a trabajar durante la pandemia (RM=1.56; IC95%: 1.33,1.81) y tener dos o más escolares en el hogar (RM=1.20; IC95%: 1.03,1.39). Conclusiones: En México, el patrón de CEA es prevalente; por su naturaleza de riesgo y su amplia distribución poblacional, es prioritario implementar intervenciones preventivas individuales y de salud pública.

Abstract: Objective: Estimate the magnitude of binge drinking and its association with individual, family, and social factors between August to November 2020 in Mexico. Materials and methods: Based on the data from National Health and Nutrition Survey 2020 Covid-19, 8 595 adults over 20 years old were analyzed. Stratified logistic regression models by sex were estimated obtaining odds ratio (OR) with 95% confidence intervals (95%CI). Results: The binge drinking reported was 40.43%; in men 56.49% and in women 25.70%. The main associated factors were being a man (OR=3.66; 95%CI: 3.22,4.17), age 20 to 29 years (OR=3.56; 95%CI: 2.89,4.63), going to work during the pandemic (OR=1.56; 95%CI: 1.33,1.81), and having two or more people of school children (OR=1.20; 95%CI: 1.03,1.39). Conclusions: The binge drinking pattern in Mexico is prevalent; due to the risky nature and the wide population distribution, it is a priority to implement individual preventive and public health interventions.

Encodat 2016: violencia de pareja y uso de tabaco, alcohol y drogas. Nuevos retos para la salud mental / Encodat 2016: Intimate partner violence and the use of tobacco, alcohol and drugs. New challenges for mental health

Resumen: Objetivo: Estimar la prevalencia de violencia de pareja por sexo y su asociación con el uso de tabaco, alcohol y drogas en México. Material y métodos: Estudio transversal de la Encuesta Nacional de Consumo de Drogas, Alcohol y Tabaco 2016, que incluyó a 34 861 personas de 12 a 65 años. Se estimaron modelos de regresión logística para obtener razones de momios (RM) e intervalos de confianza al 95% (IC95%). Resultados: La prevalencia de violencia de pareja fue de 15.14%; 18.16% en mujeres y 11.89% en hombres. Factores asociados: consumo excesivo de alcohol (RM: 1.64; IC95% 1.38-1.96), consumo de tabaco (RM:1.71;IC95% 1.42-2.07), consumo de medicamentos psicotrópicos sin receta (RM: 3.72; IC95% 1.76-7.88) y consumo de marihuana (RM: 3.06; IC95%: 1.58-5.91). Conclusiones: Los resultados apoyan la necesidad de implementar intervenciones multisectoriales, fortalecer competencias psicosociales para lograr la mejora de la calidad y acceso a los servicios de salud mental y adicciones en México.

Abstract: Objective: Estimate the prevalence of intimate partner violence by sex and the association with tobacco, alcohol, and drugs use in Mexico. Materials and methods: A cross-sectional study of the 2016 National Survey on Drug, Alcohol, and Tobacco Consumption included 34 861 people aged 12 to 65 years old. Logistic regression models were estimated obtaining odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (95%CI). Results: The prevalence of intimate partner violence was 15.14%, 18.16% in women, and 11.89% in men. The factors associated were: binge drinking (OR:1.64; 95%CI 1.38-1.96), tobacco consumption (OR: 1.71; 95%CI 1.42-2.07), use of psychotropic drugs without a prescription (OR:3.72; 95%CI 1.76-7.88) and marijuana use (OR: 3.06; 95%CI 1.58-5.91). Conclusions: The findings support the need to implement multisectoral interventions and strengthen psychosocial competencies to improve the quality and access to mental health and addiction services in Mexico.

Intimate-partner violence and its relationship with substance consumption by Mexican men and women: National Survey on Addictions / Violencia de pareja y su relación con el consumo de sustancias en hombres y mujeres mexicanos: Encuesta Nacional de Adicciones

Abstract Introduction Research findings about intimate-partner violence (IPV) have focused mostly on women as victims of violence. Recent studies show the importance of violence inflicted by women towards men or between same-sex couples. Objective To estimate the prevalence of intimate-partner violence and its association with alcohol and drug consumption in a representative sample of men and women in Mexico through secondary data analysis. Method The data come from a representative sample who filled out the section on intimate-partner violence in the Mexican 2011 Encuesta Nacional de Adicciones (National Survey on Addictions). Results The prevalence of intimate-partner violence in the last year was 17.6% against women and 13.4% against men. If one of the two partners consumed substances, the risk that men and women would experience violence increased, and that risk was even greater if both consumed. Discussion and conclusion This is the first time violence against men was reported in a Mexican national study. The findings show that gender-based violence should also be considered a result of social and cultural violence.

Resumen Introducción Los hallazgos de investigación sobre la violencia de pareja se han centrado principalmente en las mujeres como víctimas de la violencia. Estudios recientes destacan también la importancia de la violencia infligida por las mujeres hacia los hombres o entre parejas del mismo sexo. Objetivo Estimar la prevalencia de la violencia de pareja y su asociación con el consumo de alcohol y drogas en una muestra representativa de hombres y mujeres en México mediante un análisis secundario de datos. Método Los datos provienen de la Encuesta Nacional de Adicciones de México 2011, específicamente de una muestra representativa que contestó la sección sobre violencia de pareja. Resultados La prevalencia de violencia de pareja en el último año fue de 17.6% hacia las mujeres y de 13.4% hacia los hombres. Si uno de los dos integrantes de la pareja consumía sustancias, aumentaba el riesgo de que hombres o mujeres experimentaran violencia y ese riesgo era aún mayor si ambos consumían. Discusión y conclusión Esta es la primera vez que se reporta la violencia hacia los hombres en un estudio nacional mexicano. Los resultados muestran que la violencia de género también debe considerarse como resultado de la violencia social y cultural.

Factores sociales asociados con el consumo de tabaco y alcohol en adolescentes mexicanos de poblaciones menores a 100 000 habitantes / Social factors associated with tobacco and alcohol consumption in Mexican adolescents from populations under 100 000 inhabitants

Resumen: Objetivo: Evaluar los factores sociales asociados con el consumo de tabaco y alcohol en adolescentes mexicanos de poblaciones menores a 100 000 habitantes. Material y métodos: Estudio transversal a partir de resultados de la Encuesta Nacional de Salud y Nutrición (Ensanut 100k) que se enfocó en adolescentes de entre 10 y 19 años. Se estimaron modelos de regresión logística ajustados y se obtuvieron razones de momios (RM) e intervalos de confianza al 95% (IC95%). Resultados: La prevalencia de consumo de tabaco en el último mes fue de 5.5% (10-14 años=1.0%, 15-19 años= 11.2%); de consumo de alcohol, 9.3%, y de consumo excesivo de alcohol, 2.8%. Factores asociados: consumo de tabaco, sexo (hombre, RM= 6.00; IC95%: 2.89-12.46), edad (RM=1.73; IC95%: 1.46-2.04), trabajo remunerado (RM= 2.87; IC95%: 1.12-7.34) y afiliación a servicios de salud (RM= 0.26; IC95%: 0.08-0.82); consumo de alcohol, (hombre, RM= 5.11; IC95%: 2.38-11.0), edad (RM= 1.70; IC95%: 1.51-1.92) y trabajo remunerado (RM= 2.51; IC95%: 1.01-6.24). Conclusiones: Para reducir el consumo de alcohol y tabaco en adolescentes deben implementarse estrategias de prevención integrales que tomen en cuenta el contexto individual y social.

Abstract: Objective: To evaluate the social factors associated with tobacco and alcohol consumption in Mexican adolescents from populations under 100 000 inhabitants. Materials and methods: Cross-sectional study based on the National Health and Nutrition Survey (Ensanut100k). It included adolescents between 10-19 years. Adjusted logistic regression models were estimated, obtaining Odds Ratio (OR) and confidence intervals 95% (CI95%). Results: Prevalence of tobacco consumption in the last month was 5.5% (10-14 years= 1.0%, 15-19 years= 11.2%); alcohol consumption 9.3%, and excessive alcohol consumption, 2.8%. Associated factors: smoking, sex (male, OR=6.00, CI95%: 2.89-12.46), age (OR=1.73, CI95%: 1.46-2.04), remunerated work (OR=2.87, CI95%: 1.12-7.34), affiliation to health services (OR=0.26, CI95%: 0.08-0.82); alcohol consumption, (male, OR=5.11, CI95%: 2.38-11.00), age (OR=1.70, CI95%: 1.51-1.92), remunerated work (OR=2.51, CI95%: 1.01-6.24). Conclusions: To reduce the consumption of alcohol and tobacco in adolescents, comprehensive prevention strategies must be implemented that consider the individual and social context.

Consumo de alcohol y lesiones: estudio en población atendida en servicios de urgencias de la ciudad de Xalapa, Veracruz, México / Alcohol and injuries: study on the population treated in emergency departments in Xalapa, Veracruz, México

RESUMEN: Introducción: El abuso de bebidas alcohólicas ha aumentado en las últimas décadas, principalmente en la población mayor de 15 años, lo que puede provocar un incremento de los problemas sociales y de salud, entre los que destacan las lesiones intencionales por violencia o no intencionales por accidentes. Objetivo: Identificar la asociación entre consumo de alcohol, lesiones y características sociodemográficas en pacientes atendidos en el servicio de urgencias. Método: Estudio transversal, en el servicio de urgencias de dos hospitales de Xalapa, Veracruz (México), entre septiembre y diciembre de 2013. Se aplicó un cuestionario a pacientes lesionados mayores de 15 años. Como medida de asociación se realizaron análisis de regresión logística para estimar las probabilidades mediante Odds Ratio (OR). Resultados: Participaron 505 pacientes, 28.9% reportó haber consumido alcohol antes de la lesión. Quienes consumieron alcohol (OR = 2.42, IC95% 1.36-4.31) y los hombres (OR = 2.33, IC95% 1.12-4.84) presentaron mayor probabilidad de sufrir lesiones graves. Pacientes lesionados en horario nocturno (OR = 3.56, IC95% 2.20-5.77), con edad entre 15 a 29 años (OR = 1.68, IC95% 1.05-2.70) y el consumo de seis a 15 copas de alcohol (OR = 4.40, IC95% 2.17-8.90), mostraron mayor probabilidad de sufrir lesiones por violencia. Discusión y conclusión: Se demostró la asociación del consumo de alcohol con la producción de lesiones. Es necesario que las políticas públicas estén destinadas a fomentar un consumo responsable de alcohol y enfatizar en el control de su uso nocivo que se realiza particularmente en fines de semana y en horario nocturno, para coadyuvar a la prevención de lesiones y sus complicaciones, que en ocasiones pueden ser fatales.

ABSTRACT: Introduction: Excessive alcohol consumption has escalated in recent decades, primarily in adolescents over 15 years of age. This situation can lead to an increase in social and health problems such as intentional violence-related injuries or unintentional injuries caused by accidents. Objective: To identify the association between alcohol and injuries in patients treated in the emergency department and its relationship with certain sociodemographic characteristics. Method: Cross-sectional study conducted in the emergency department of two hospitals in Xalapa, Veracruz (Mexico), between September and December 2013. Injured patients aged 15 years and over were administered a questionnaire. Logistic regression analyses were performed in order to calculate the odds ratio. Results: Among the 505 patients surveyed, 28.9% reported having consumed alcohol prior to injury. Patients who used alcohol (OR = 2.42, 95% CI: 1.36-4.31) and those who were men (OR = 2.33, 95% CI: 1.12-4.84) had a higher probability of severe injuries. Patients injured during night hours (OR = 3.56, 95% CI: 2.20-5.77) aged 15 to 29 years old (OR = 1.68, 95% CI: 1.05-2.70), and in the range between 6 to 15 cups of alcohol consumed (OR = 4.40, 95% CI: 2.17-8.90) showed a higher probability of violence-related injuries. Discussion and conclusion: The study showed the relationship between alcohol consumption and injuries. It is necessary to develop public policies that promote responsible drinking. These policies should emphasize controlling the harmful use of alcohol, particularly during weekends and at night, in order to contribute to the prevention of injuries and its complications, which can sometimes be fatal.

Estilos de afrontamiento a la "obsesión mental por beber" (craving) en bebedores en proceso de recuperación / Coping styles to "obsession for drinking" (craving) for alcoholics in recovery process

Antecedentes: En el alcoholismo, el tema del craving es un asunto controvertido. Sin embargo, se sabe que, si un alcohólico puede hablar del suceso en sus propios términos, aumenta la probabilidad de lograr un afrontamiento exitoso y evitar una recaída. No obstante, se conoce muy poco acerca de dicho afrontamiento y aún menos cuando se alude a él con términos propios del bebedor.Objetivo: Conocer el afrontamiento de la "obsesión mental por beber", expresión que suelen utilizar los miembros de Alcohólicos Anónimos (AA) para hablar de las reacciones características del craving.Método: La muestra incluyó a 192 individuos que habían participado en AA durante 10 años en promedio (DE=7.5 años). Se aplicó un instrumento empírico para medir el afrontamiento (Kr=.86). Se utilizó un conglomerado de dos fases para establecer perfiles.Resultados: El análisis encontró cinco estilos de afrontamiento: 1. evadir situaciones inductoras al tiempo que se busca una solución (evasivo-activo); 2. evadir retrayéndose (evasivo-pasivo); 3. mostrar sentimientos de enojo y no hacer nada (emocional-pasivo); 4. recordar y comparar la vida pasada como alcohólicos activos (revalorativo) y 5. negar cualquier afrontamiento (negador).Discusión y conclusion: Los datos son preliminares, pero ofrecen la oportunidad de ampliar y especificar la forma en que ciertos alcohólicos de nuestro país solucionan un problema tan complejo como es el craving. El agrupamiento de respuestas supone esfuerzos o estilos de afrontar que pueden resultar o no efectivos para lograr una recuperación -por ejemplo, prevenir las recaídas en las personas que asisten a los grupos de AA-, por lo que plantea una importante perspectiva de investigación.

Background: Although craving is a controversial concept in alcoholism research, it is known that if an alcoholic can talk about the event using his own words, the probability of successful coping and prevention of relapse is bigger. However, little is known about such coping, and even less when it is articulated from the drinker's perspective.Objective: To identify the coping mechanism to this event that causes physical and emotional responses similar to those of craving, identified with the own language of Alcoholics Anonymous (AA).Method: The sample consisted of 192 individuals who participated in AA meetings for an average of ten years (SD=7.5). An empirical instrument was developed to measure coping (Kr=.86) and a two-phase conglomerate analysis was used to create categories to develop profiles.Results: The analysis showed five coping profiles suggesting that AA members cope with the event as follow: 1. evading but looking for a direct solution (elusive-active conglomerate), 2. evading but retracting (elusive-liabilities conglomerate), 3. getting upset and doing nothing (emotional-passive conglomerate), 4. remembering and comparing their past life (revalorative conglomerate), and 5. denying (denier conglomerate).Discussion and conclusion: Although the data are preliminary, they offer the opportunity to expand and specify how certain alcoholics solve a complex problem, such as craving. The information concurs with literature in the sense that this grouping of responses assumed those efforts that may be effective or not for the recovery process, for example, to prevent relapses in alcoholics who attend AA groups, so it raises an important research perspective.

¡Ya no sé ni qué hacer!: barreras para la búsqueda de atención de las necesidades derivadas del consumo de alcohol / I do not know what to do! Barriers to seeking care for needs arising from alcohol consumption

Antecedentes: En el presente trabajo se analizan las principales barreras que impiden la búsqueda de ayuda médica y la regulación que viven tanto las personas que abusan del alcohol como sus familiares en una comunidad rural.Objetivo: Analizar las metáforas y los dilemas de las personas consumidoras de alcohol y sus familiares, en cuanto a sus necesidades de salud, búsqueda de atención, aplicación de la regulación y los obstáculos a los que se enfrentan.Método: Es un estudio de caso, con metodología cualitativa: etnografía, grupos focales y entrevistas semiestructuradas.Resultados: Éstos muestran que los actores consideran el abuso de alcohol como un problema hasta que se presenta una adicción y se debaten entre considerarlo un "vicio" o una enfermedad. La búsqueda de atención está obstaculizada por la tolerancia hacia la ingestión de alcohol por parte de los consumidores, así como de los familiares, el desconocimiento sobre la manera de proceder y el temor al "chisme". Todo esto, en un contexto de escasa regulación y opciones de tratamiento, donde el consumo se propicia socioculturalmente.Discusión y conclusion: Los significados y los dilemas a que se enfrentan los actores para la búsqueda de atención en salud y la regulación de la venta de alcohol, representan barreras de acceso a la atención a las cuales debe responder el sistema de salud de manera integral.

Backgroudn: This paper analyzes the main barriers to seeking health care and the regulation of alcohol abusers and their relatives in a rural community.Objective: Was to analyze the metaphors and dilemmas of alcohol consumers and their families regarding their health needs, seeking care, the implementation of regulation and the obstacles they face in a rural community in Mexico.Method: This is a qualitative case study, involving ethnography, focus groups and semi-structured interviews.Results: How that people view alcohol abuse as a problem until an addiction occurs and are torn between regarding it as a "vice" or a disease. Seeking care is hampered by tolerance towards consumption, ignorance of how to proceed, fear of "gossip" in a context of weak regulation and treatment options, where consumption is socio-culturally encouraged.Discussion and conclusion: That the meanings and dilemmas faced by actors in the search for health care and the regulation of alcohol sales constitute barriers to which the health system must respond in an integral fashion.

Las necesidades de salud y la respuesta social en una localidad rural: Metáforas y dilemas frente al consumo de alcohol / Health needs and social response in a rural town: Metaphors and dilemmas regarding the use of alcohol

Antecedentes El consumo nocivo de alcohol se identifica como un problema de salud pública. El éxito de la respuesta del sistema de salud a las necesidades depende de los programas, los actores que los ejecutan y del grado de aceptabilidad de la población receptora. Objetivo Conocer la percepción sobre cómo enfrentan los actores políticos, civiles, mercantiles y del sistema de salud las necesidades de salud derivadas del consumo nocivo de alcohol en una zona rural, con la intención de brindar información para la toma de decisiones en políticas de salud dirigidas a la atención de este problema. Metodo Estudio de caso con enfoque cualitativo, realizado en una localidad rural de Morelos, en la cual sus habitantes identificaron que el consumo de alcohol representaba un problema de salud. Resultados Se analiza el discurso y se identifican las metáforas que utiliza la población para darle sentido a este fenómeno y los dilemas que enfrentan. Discusión y conclusión Se discuten las diferencias en la manera en que se percibe el consumo de alcohol y cómo éstas dificultan la implementación de acciones de prevención y atención del abuso del mismo así como la regulación de la venta. Se concluye que para el diseño de políticas públicas que respondan a las necesidades de salud en este tema se requiere tomar en cuenta la naturaleza dilemática del pensamiento social de los individuos que intervienen en dicha respuesta, la cual debe rebasar la prestación de los servicios de salud e incorporar los determinantes sociales (económicos, políticos y culturales).

Background Harmful alcohol use is identified as a public health problem and the success of the health system response to needs will depend on the programs, the actors who implement them and their degree of acceptability among the recipient population. Objective To determine the perception of how political, civil, commercial and health system actors meet the health needs derived from harmful alcohol use in a rural area, with the aim of providing information for decision-making in health policies to cope with this problem. Method Case study with a qualitative approach, conducted in a rural town of Morelos, in which its inhabitants identified the fact that alcohol posed a health problem. Results Discourse is analyzed by identifying the metaphors used to make sense of this phenomenon and the dilemmas faced. Discussion and conclusion The authors discuss the differences in the way it is perceived and how they prevent the implementation of actions to prevent and deal with alcohol abuse and sales regulations. They conclude that designing public policies that respond to the health needs in this area requires taking into account the dilemmatic nature of the social thinking of the individuals involved in this response, which goes beyond health service provision, and incorporating social determinants (economic, political and cultural).

Population study of depressive symptoms and risk factors in pregnant and parenting Mexican adolescents / Estudio poblacional sobre los síntomas depresivos y los factores de riesgo en adolescentes mexicanas embarazadas o con hijos

OBJECTIVE: To study the prevalence of, severity of, and risk factors for depressive symptoms in a probabilistic sample of Mexican adolescent mothers. METHODS: A sample of adolescents aged 13-19 years, drawn from a national survey, was interviewed in relation to severity of depressive symptoms [Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) 16-23 and CES-D > 24] and pregnancy or parenting status. RESULTS: Depressive symptoms (CES-D 16-23) ranged from 2.3 percent in the first postpartum semester to 32.5 percent in the second trimester of pregnancy; high depressive symptoms (CES-D > 24) ranged from 3.0 percent in the second postpartum semester to 24.7 percent in mothers of an infant more than 1 year old. Significant differences between groups were in mothers in the second gestation trimester, who had significantly more symptoms than those who had never been pregnant and those in the first postpartum semester. In those with high symptomatology, no significant differences were observed between groups. A multinomial logistic regression model used to estimate the likelihood of depression found increased risk of depressive symptoms (CES-D 16-23) in those without a partner in the first, second, or third trimester of pregnancy; in the second postpartum semester; and with a child over the age of 1 year. Increased risk of high symptomatology (CES-D > 24) was found in those not in school or with a child over the age of 1 year. CONCLUSIONS: Depressive symptoms entail an enormous burden of disease for the mother and mental health risks to the infant; mothers should therefore be targeted in prevention and intervention actions.

OBJETIVO: Estudiar la prevalencia, la gravedad y los factores de riesgo de los síntomas depresivos en una muestra probabilística de madres adolescentes de México. MÉTODOS: En una muestra de adolescentes de 13 a 19 años de edad tomadas de una encuesta nacional se efectuaron entrevistas relacionadas con la gravedad de los síntomas depresivos (Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale [CES-D] 16 a 23 y CES-D > 24) y la situación de embarazo o de crianza. RESULTADOS: Los síntomas depresivos (CES-D de 16 a 23) variaron de 2,3 por ciento en el primer semestre después del parto a 32,5 por ciento en el segundo trimestre del embarazo; los síntomas depresivos graves (CES-D > 24) fueron desde 3,0 por ciento en el segundo semestre posparto hasta 24,7 por ciento en las madres de un niño mayor de 1 año de edad. Se observaron diferencias significativas entre los grupos en las madres que se encontra-ban en el segundo trimestre de la gestación, que presentaron significativamente más síntomas que las mujeres que nunca habían estado embarazadas y que las que estaban en el primer semestre posparto. En las mujeres con síntomas graves, no se observaron diferencias significativas entre los grupos. Mediante un modelo de regresión logística polinómico usado para calcular la probabilidad de depresión se detectó un mayor riesgo de padecer síntomas depresivos (CES-D 16 a 23) en las mujeres sin una pareja que se encontraban en el primer, segundo o tercer trimestre del embarazo; en el segundo semestre después del parto; y en las mujeres con un niño mayor de 1 año. En las mujeres que no concurrían a la escuela y en aquellas con un niño mayor de 1 año se encontró un mayor riesgo de presentar síntomas graves (CES-D > 24). CONCLUSIONES: Los síntomas depresivos implican una carga de morbilidad impor-tante para la madre y riesgos para la salud mental del lactante; por lo tanto, las acciones de prevención y de intervención deben dirigirse a las madres.

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Introduction Mental health can have different meanings in indigenous communities, which is why understanding mental problems requires studying the context. Knowledge of mental health in these communities sheds light on the population's perception of how they live and experience the stressful events that cause depressive symptomatology. The aim of this article is to analyze the link between the symptoms expressed in an indigenous population and the symptoms evaluated using the Depression Scale of the Center for Epidemiological Studies (CES-D) and its link with socio-demographic variables. Method The sample comprises indigenous women from the Mezquital Valley who attended medical consultations and were referred for psychological treatment since they were considered to be suffering from emotional malaise due to their inability to cope with living with a relative who was a heavy drinker. A mixed method that explores meanings was used to analyze the information. This method involves the analysis of quantitative and qualitative data that complement each other in order to understand the cultural context and influences. The quantitative analysis consisted of obtaining the score for depressive symptomatology and its link with socio-demographic variables such as academic achievement, age, occupation and marital status. Presence (experiencing the symptom in the week prior to the interview, regardless of the number of days) and persistence (experiencing the symptom from five to seven days) were analyzed. Results and discussion Sixty-two per cent obtained high scores for depressive symptomatology. The qualitative data indicate that the women expressed feelings that correspond to items in the CES-D. Working and being young constitute a protective factor that provides women with a social life and a degree of independence. The effectiveness of the CES-D as a screening instrument means that it can be applied in primary health care to alert professionals and ensure timely referral. Conclusion The CES-D scale is suitable for measuring depressive symptomatology in Mexico's indigenous population. However, these findings must be treated with caution because of the population's meanings and representations of health and illness.

Introducción En las comunidades indígenas la salud mental puede tener significados diferentes por lo que la comprensión de los problemas mentales requiere del estudio del contexto. Su conocimiento favorecería entender desde la perspectiva de la población cómo viven y experimentan los eventos estresantes que les ocasiona sintomatología depresiva. El objetivo de este artículo es analizar la relación entre los síntomas expresados en una población indígena, los síntomas evaluados con la Escala de Depresión del Centro de Estudios Epidemiologicos (CES-D)y su relación con variables sociodemográficas. Método El Instituto Nacional de Psiquiatría Ramón de la Fuente Muñiz, ha venido trabajando por más de diez años en los problemas relacionados con el consumo de alcohol en la comunidad indígena otomí del Estado de Hidalgo. Este trabajo es uno de los realizados en este campo. En este caso la muestra se integra por mujeres indígenas del Valle del Mezquital que asistieron a la consulta médica, y que fueron canalizadas a la atención psicológica por considerar que tenían malestares emocionales por no saber cómo enfrentar la situación de convivir con un familiar consumidor excesivo de alcohol. Para el análisis de la información se utilizó el método mixto, consistente en el análisis de datos cuantitativos y cualitativos que se complementan entre sí para comprender el contexto y explorar los significados y las influencias culturales. El análisis cuantitativo consistió en obtener el puntaje de la sintomatología depresiva y su relación con variables sociodemográficas de escolaridad, edad, ocupación y estado civil. Se analizó la presencia (experimentar el síntoma durante la semana previa a la aplicación sin importar el número de días) y la persistencia (padecer el síntoma de cinco a siete días). Resultados y discusión El 62% tuvo puntuaciones altas de sintomatología depresiva. Los datos cualitativos indican que las mujeres expresan sentimientos que corresponden a los reactivos de la CES-D. Trabajar y ser joven es un factor protector para la sintomatología, brinda a las mujeres una vida social y una esporádica independencia. La efectividad de la CES-D como instrumento de tamizaje, permite su aplicación en el nivel de atención primaria para alertar al profesional y hacer una canalización adecuada. Conclusión La escala de CES-D es adecuada para medir la sintomatología depresiva en una población indígena de México. Sin embargo, la interpretación deberá realizarse con cautela por los significados y representaciones del proceso salud-enfermedad en esta población específica.

Efectos de una intervención a familiares de consumidores de alcohol en una región indígena en México / Effects of intervention on relatives of alcohol consumers in an indigenous community in Mexico

The 2008 National Addictions Survey reports that dependence on alcohol consumption is higher in Mexico's rural and indigenous communities (10.6%) than in urban areas (9.5%), and that its consequences for the social and health environment are correspondingly greater. This is compounded by the marginalization and poverty of these regions and the scant resources available for dealing with health, particularly alcoholism. The study was carried out in the indigenous zone of El Mezquital in the state of Hidalgo. In this state, the National Addictions Survey (2008) reports that daily consumption is 1.4% and habitual consumption is 6.6% while the index of abuse and dependence is 6.8%, all of which are above the national mean of 0.8%, 5.3% and 5.5%, respectively. One of the consequences is having a mortality rate for hepatic cirrhosis of 40.2 for every 100 000 inhabitants, making this the area with the highest mortality rate from this cause in Mexico, which has an average rate of 26.3 cirrhosis-related deaths for every 100 000 inhabitants. The family is the most immediate group affected by the alcoholism of one of its members, which has severe implications for the psychological and physical health of the other members. Since little is known about the way families in Mexico's indigenous or rural zones deal with this problem, a research project was carried out to find out more about the situation. To this end, an ethnographic study was undertaken to identify the role of alcohol in everyday life and determine families' needs for support and the cultural challenges that must be overcome to undertake an intervention. The results of the ethnographic exploration showed that alcohol consumption is a deeply-ingrained custom in the community that provides group identity and solidarity, particularly for men. Its consumption is closely linked to work, particularly agricultural activities and construction. One important aspect was women's complaints that they did not know what to do about the consequences of excess alcohol consumption on the family's health and economy. In addition to this, a powerful patriarchal influence was identified that prevented women from seeking psychological assistance for the problem of alcohol abuse, which is essentially male. Poverty is one of the characteristics of the desert area of El Mezquital where this study was carried out. It constitutes yet another obstacle to seeking and requesting help, partly because of the adverse geographical conditions that limit transport. In addition to the scant transport services, there are communities in which the nearest health center is just over an hour's walk away. Moreover, families' scant resources are used to cover basic needs, ignoring both physical and mental health aspects. On the basis of an ethnographic study, an intervention program was linguistically and culturally adapted to provide support for families. This resulted in a specialized manual suitable for the region, designed to train health professionals to help relatives cope with a family member's excess consumption. This intervention was carried out between 2008 and 2009 and the results are presented in this study. Intervention model This brief intervention, based on the stress-coping-health model, is designed to help relatives find means of coping with their relatives' consumption in a more beneficial way for their health and to establish or strengthen support networks on the basis of their needs. Three coping styles have been documented: committed, tolerant and independent. The intervention consists of five steps that can be carried out in approximately five sessions. These involve: 1. Exploring family concerns; 2. Providing essential information on the effects of alcohol consumption; 3. Analyzing the coping styles used; 4. Exploring social support networks; and 5. Referring family members to specialized care, where necessary. Through these five stops, the intervention seeks to: a) Reduce the presence of physical and psychological symptomatology; b) Improve coping styles in a way that will benefit the relative's mental health and c) Reduce the presence of depressive symptomatology. Method Objective: The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of the brief intervention on relatives of a person who consumes excess amounts of alcohol and to compare these results with relatives who, despite having the same problem, refused to participate in the intervention program. Procedure: the intervention was carried out by two psychologists (facilitators). Health center personnel referred relatives to the facilitators (group that experienced the intervention). The intervention ended when the women felt confident enough to be able to use the new coping styles, which took between 4 and 6 sessions (which lasted from 6 to 8 weeks). The <

El consumo de alcohol en la región indígena del Estado de Hidalgo representa un problema de salud importante. Según la ENA 2008, el consumo diario es de 1.4%, el consuetudinario de 6.6% y el índice de abuso y dependencia de 6.8%, todos por encima de la media nacional de 0.8, 5.3 y 5.5%, respectivamente. Hidalgo presentó en 2007 una tasa de mortalidad por cirrosis hepática de 40.2 por cada 100 000 habitantes, primer lugar del país, que en promedio tiene una tasa de 26.3 habitantes por cada 100 000. La familia es el grupo más inmediato que se ve afectado por el consumo de alcohol, con implicaciones graves para la salud psicológica y física de sus miembros. Para conocer cómo enfrentan esta situación las familias en zonas indígenas del Estado de Hidalgo, se llevó a cabo un estudio etnográfico donde se encontró que el consumo de alcohol es una costumbre arraigada en la comunidad, que proporciona identidad y solidaridad de grupo. Un resultado relevante del estudio fue la queja de las mujeres de no saber qué hacer frente a las consecuencias que tiene el consumo excesivo de alcohol en la familia, así como la fuerte influencia patriarcal que limita a las mujeres para solicitar apoyo psicológico. La pobreza, las difíciles condiciones geográficas, transportes insuficientes y la prioridad de resolver necesidades básicas limitan la búsqueda de apoyo profesional. Como resultado de la exploración etnográfica, se identificó la necesidad de atención a las familias para encontrar mejores formas de enfrentar la problemática; por ello se adaptó un programa para ofrecer acciones de apoyo a familias indígenas. La intervención se llevó a cabo entre 2008 y 2009, los resultados se presentan en este trabajo. Modelo de atención: La intervención breve tiene como meta ayudar a los familiares a encontrar formas de enfrentar las situaciones de consumo de manera más benéfica para su salud y establecer o fortalecer redes de apoyo. Consta de cinco pasos: 1. Escuchar la problemática del familiar, 2. Brindar información relevante, 3. Analizar los estilos de enfrentamiento utilizados, 4. Búsqueda de fuentes de apoyo y 5. Canalización en caso de requerir atención especializada. Éstos se llevan a cabo en aproximadamente cinco sesiones. Material y método Objetivo: Evaluar los efectos de la intervención breve sobre la presencia de sintomatología física y psicológica, los estilos de enfrentamiento utilizados y la presencia de sintomatología depresiva, en personas que conviven con un familiar con consumo excesivo de alcohol. Muestra: 60 mujeres entre 18 y 65 años con problemas por el consumo de alcohol de un familiar (esposo o padre). Se integraron dos grupos, uno con intervención y otro sin ella. Para formar el primero, el personal de los centros de salud canalizó a los familiares con las orientadoras (dos psicólogas) para recibir atención, que concluía una vez que las mujeres manifestaban confianza para utilizar nuevos estilos de enfrentamiento, lo que ocurrió entre las sesiones cuatro y seis. El <

Estudio preliminar de la expresión del mensaje genético del transportador de serotonina en células mononucleares de sangre periférica en pacientes con dependencia al alcohol con y sin depresión mayor comórbida / Preliminary study of the genetic message expression of serotonin transporter in peripheral blood mononuclear cells in patients with alcohol dependence with and without comorbid major depression

The 2008 National Addiction Survey demonstrated the existence of 39 million alcohol drinkers, of whom 4.2 million are excessive drinkers and 4.8 million are alcohol dependents. No reports of the comorbidity of psychiatric disorders in alcohol consumers in our country exist. Nevertheless, 40% to 50% of alcohol-dependent patients from other countries have some sort of psychiatric disorder, such as major depression. Serotonergic function is a key mediator of mood states, impulsiveness, and addictive behavior, including alcohol consumption. Several studies have noted alterations in the serotonergic system in alcoholics (as demonstrated by an increase in the shooting frequency of raphe nuclei serotonergic neurons, an increase in serotonin levels in the accumbens nuclei, and a loss in serotonergic neurons in the raphe nuclei) and depressed patients (decreases in the density of serotonin reuptake transporter [5-HTT] and serotonin levels [5-HT]). Clinical studies have documented that excessive alcohol intake reduces 5-HT levels and that this condition potentiates psychiatric disorders, such as anxiety, major depression, and alcohol dependence. These data demonstrate an association between alcoholism, psychiatric disorders, and alcohol dependence. By molecular biology techniques, genetic risk factors have been identified and candidate genes, such as 5-HTT, have been selected. This gene is associated with a greater susceptibility to onset of alcohol-dependence and major depression. The 5-HTT gene lies in the SLC6A4 locus of 1 7q1 1.1-q12 and encodes a 600-amino-acid integral membrane protein. This transporter regulates serotonergic neurotransmission through removal of 5-HT from the synaptic space. Pharmacological research has shown that selective reuptake inhibitors (5-HTT blockers) reduce alcohol intake in alcohol-dependent and major depression patients. Serotonergic system receptors, such as 5-HTT, 5-HT1, and 5-HT2, are expressed in nervous system and immune system cells; thus it is likely that both systems have functional similarities. Due to this property, peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) can be used to research neurodegenerative, psychiatric, and alcohol dependence disorders. The aim of this study was to assess 5-HTT expression levels in the PBMCs from alcohol-dependent patients and patients with comorbid alcohol-dependence and major depression disorder. Materials and methods The Outpatient Consultative Service from the Centro de Ayuda a Alcohólicos y Familiares (CAAF) and the Centro de Alcohólicos y Drogadictos <

La Encuesta Nacional de Adicciones 2008 reportó que en México existen 39 millones de personas que consumen alcohol y 4.8 millones presentan dependencia. A nivel mundial varios estudios indican que los pacientes con dependencia al alcohol (40 a 50%) presentan comorbilidad con algún tipo de padecimiento psiquiátrico. La función serotoninérgica es un mediador clave en los estados de ánimo, la impulsividad y las conductas adictivas, entre ellas el consumo de alcohol. Se ha reportado que el consumo excesivo de alcohol etílico disminuye los niveles de serotonina, aumenta la frecuencia de disparo de las neuronas serotoninérgicas en el núcleo del rafé y aumenta los niveles de serotonina en el núcleo accumbens. Las técnicas de biología molecular han permitido identificar factores de riesgo genético y se han seleccionado genes candidatos del sistema serotoninérgico, siendo uno de ellos el gen para el transportador de serotonina (5-HTT), el cual se ha demostrado que se encuentra asociado tanto a una mayor susceptibilidad para el establecimiento de la dependencia al alcohol como a la depresión mayor. Los receptores del sistema serotoninérgico como el 5-HTT, el 5-HT1 y el 5-HT2 se expresan tanto en las células del Sistema Nervioso como en las células del sistema inmunológico, lo que sugiere una similitud funcional de ambos sistemas. Es por ello que las células mononucleares de sangre periférica (PBMC) han sido utilizadas como un modelo de estudio en los trastornos de dependencia al alcohol y en los psiquiátricos. El objetivo de este estudio fue evaluar los niveles de expresión del gen 5-HTT en células mononucleares de sangre periférica de pacientes con dependencia al alcohol con y sin depresión mayor comórbida. En el Servicio de Consulta Externa del Centro de Ayuda a Alcohólicos y Familiares (CAAF) y en el Centro de Alcohólicos y Drogadictos <

Utilización de servicios de atención a la salud mental en mujeres víctimas de violencia conyugal / Mental health services utilization among Mexican female victims of intimate partner violence

Violence against women is one of the main problems that affect life quality around the world due to severe injuries, serious mental health problems, as well as reproductive and sexual difficulties. Different studies show that the majority of abused women present an immediate reaction of distress which, if not treated, might turn into more severe emotional conditions such as post-traumatic stress disorder, major depression, psychosomatic symptoms, anxiety disorder, alcohol and/or drug abuse. The information about service utilization by abused women is controversial. Some studies estimate that health care services utilization is more frequent among abused women. For instance, a study carried out in the United States suggests that the likelihood of using health care services is twice as high among women who had suffered violence as compared to women who had not been abused. In contrast, other studies point that abused women deal with several difficulties to receive attention. This information is consistent with the idea that mental health problems prevent abused women from acknowledging the severity of their situation and, thus, they have more difficulties to protect themselves, to seek help, and to identify the institutions they can resort to. The majority of studies reporting service utilization by violence victims focus on injury care at emergency rooms, while the information about the attention of violence-related mental health problems and the expenditure it represents is scarcer. There are data suggesting that formal sources of health care are not the first choice due to a number of barriers which can be cultural (beliefs and values) or structural (limited availability and accessibility). Moreover, when women finally reach formal services, their demands are not totally fulfilled. Only a few studies have been carried out in Mexico. For example, a national survey with a representative sample of women who attended public health care services showed that 21.5% had suffered some form of violence from an intimate partner and 25% of them had never talked about that problem with a service provider, mainly because they lacked trust, they were ashamed or because they considered it as a private problem. The objective of this study is to determine the prevalence of mental health problems among a sample of female victims of intimate partner violence, to analyze the characteristics of mental health services utilization, and the reasons to seek help in this group. The data reported herein are part of a household survey which included four low income communities in the Southern area of Mexico City. The survey required multistage sampling: blocks were selected in the first stage, dwelling segments at stage two, and the final stage consisted in the random selection of one person aged 15 or older, living in the selected household, Spanish speaking, and without major mental diseases that would prevent him/her to answer the questionnaire. This procedure yielded a final sample of 1156 individuals, 49% males and 51% females. This study considers only a sub-sample of women who reported having an abusive male partner by the time of the survey (n=135). The questionnaire used includes several sections: 1. sociodemographic data and dwelling characteristics, 2. mental health services utilization, 3. a few sections of the CIDI v.1.1, 4. the Spanish version of the Danger Assessment Scale adapted to Mexican population. The interviewees agreed to participate voluntarily after the objectives and terms of confidentiality were explained; the questionnaire was administered through individual interviews by trained personnel. The section on intimate partner violence was completed only by women who had a male partner at the moment. The services considered in this study include Medical services: physician, family practitioner or other specialist (gynecologist, cardiologist, etc.), nurse, first level clinic. Mental health specialist: psychiatrist, psychologist, nurse specialized in mental health care. Alternative services: curanderos (folk practitioners), herbalist, spiritists, acupuncture, Bach's flowers, Reiki therapists, masseuses, bone and muscle therapists. Religious ministers: priest, spiritual counselors, rabbi, etc. The final sample includes 135 women who had suffered some form of violence; 30% were aged between 35 and 44 years and 26% were 25 to 34 years old. Most of them were housewives and 65% attained elementary school. As to the presence of psychiatric symptoms, 8.8% met the criteria for depressive disorder and 21.7% met criteria for anxiety disorder. When women who suffered physical violence are considered separately, the proportion of individuals with a depressive disorder is significantly higher (16%) than the proportion of women who had not suffered physical violence. Women diagnosed with depressive disorder reported physical violence (66.7%), being forced into sexual intercourse (50%), and threatens of death (33.3%). On the other hand, control over daily activities was the most frequent form of violence reported by women with anxiety disorder (55.2%). Out of all women who reported at least one form of violence, only 16.2% sought help to treat mental health problems. Nearly 42% of women with depressive disorders sought help with mental health specialists and 25% with a general practitioner. As to anxiety disorders, no significant differences were found as to service utilization. The main reason to seek help for those who presented any disorder was to think they really needed help, followed by feeling very nervous and crying all the time. Reasons for not seeking help include not knowing what to do and being ashamed. In general, these findings are consistent with previous studies reporting low utilization of mental health care services by victims of violence. The proportion increases when depressive or anxiety symptoms are present; however, the number of women seeking help remains low. These results are relevant since research on service utilization by abused women has focused on emergency rooms, while little attention has been placed on mental health services. Data must be considered with caution since this is a cross-sectional study and it is not possible to establish the temporal sequence of events; nevertheless, they provide evidence of a clear relation among mental disorders and violence.

Existe controversia en cuanto al uso de servicios por parte de las mujeres víctimas de violencia. Algunos estudios estiman que, debido al gran número de padecimientos que se asocian con la violencia de pareja, el uso de servicios de atención a la salud es más frecuente entre las mujeres que sufren maltrato. En contraste, otras investigaciones señalan que las mujeres sometidas a abusos enfrentan más dificultades para recibir atención a la salud. Este último dato coincide con la idea de que los problemas de salud mental que padecen las mujeres maltratadas les impiden reconocer la gravedad de su situación y, en consecuencia, tienen mayores dificultades para protegerse, buscar ayuda e identificar las instituciones a las que pueden recurrir. La mayoría de los reportes sobre la utilización de servicios por mujeres víctimas de violencia se centra en la atención de lesiones físicas en salas de urgencias, mientras que es más escasa la información sobre la atención de problemas de salud mental asociados a la violencia y los costos que ésta genera. El objetivo del presente trabajo es analizar la prevalencia de trastornos mentales, las características del uso de servicios de salud mental y las razones para buscar ayuda en un grupo de mujeres víctimas de violencia. Los datos forman parte de una encuesta de hogares realizada en cuatro comunidades de bajos ingresos del sur de la Ciudad de México. Se realizó un muestreo multietápico: en la primera etapa se eligieron las manzanas, en la segunda se escogieron segmentos de viviendas y en la etapa final se seleccionó de manera aleatoria a una persona mayor de 15 años que viviera de manera habitual en el hogar seleccionado, que hablara español y cuyas facultades mentales no presentaran problemas serios que impidieran realizar la entrevista. Se obtuvo una muestra de 1156 individuos; este trabajo considera únicamente una submuestra de mujeres que tenían pareja del sexo opuesto al momento de realizar la entrevista y que reportaron haber sufrido por lo menos alguna forma de violencia (n=135). El cuestionario comprende las siguientes secciones: 1. datos sociodemográficos; 2. utilización de servicios de atención a la salud mental, donde las modalidades consideradas son: servicio médico, especialista en salud mental, servicios alternativos, ministro religioso; 3. algunos módulos del CIDI versión 1.1; 4. una versión en español de la Escala de Evaluación del Peligro adaptada a la población mexicana. Del total de la muestra, 8.9% cubrieron los criterios de trastorno depresivo y 21.7% los criterios de trastorno de ansiedad. Las mujeres diagnosticadas con trastorno depresivo reportaron con mayor frecuencia violencia física (66.7%), relaciones sexuales forzadas (50%) y amenazas de muerte (33.3%). Por otra parte, el control de las actividades diarias fue la forma de violencia más reportada por las entrevistadas con trastorno de ansiedad (55.2%). Del total de mujeres que reportaron maltrato, 16.2% buscaron ayuda para atender sus problemas de salud mental. El 41.7% de las que cubrieron los criterios de trastorno depresivo recurrieron a especialistas en salud mental y 25% a médicos generales. En cuanto a los trastornos de ansiedad, no se observaron diferencias significativas respecto al uso de servicios. En general, los resultados son congruentes con estudios previos en que se reporta una escasa utilización de servicios de atención por mujeres que sufren violencia. Si bien es cierto que esta proporción aumenta ante la presencia de trastornos depresivos o de ansiedad, el número de mujeres que solicitan ayuda profesional es bajo. Estos hallazgos son relevantes en tanto que la investigación sobre el uso de servicios por parte de mujeres maltratadas se ha concentrado en la asistencia a salas de urgencia, dejando de lado las necesidades de atención especializada en salud mental.

Tailoring an intervention model to help indigenous families cope with excessive drinking in central Mexico / Adaptación de un modelo de intervención para ayudar a las familias indígenas a enfrentar el consumo excesivo de alcohol en la zona central de México

Summary: Alcohol has been acknowledged as one of the psychotropic drugs consumed in nearly all cultures. The study of alcohol use among indigenous and rural communities from an anthropological perspective highlights the function of alcohol in the social cohesion, and tends to minimize the consequences of consumption. This research adopts a complementary paradigm more closely linked to the acknowledgement of the significant increase in alcohol availability, coupled with its excessive promotion and the lack of support services for other related social, economic and even religious problems. Two groups are affected by excessive drinking: consumers and their closest social nucleus, i.e. the family, both of which require assistance. The aim of this article is to describe the process followed to adapt to the indigenous context a brief intervention model to support the drinkers' families, which is based upon the stress-strain-coping-support model and has proved useful in helping to deal with the dilemmas faced by relatives concerned with a family member's excessive drinking. The adaptation process included four research phases involving different qualitative methods: 1. feasibility, which includes the initial ethnographic research, 2. the adaptation of instruments and psycho-educational materials, 3. the development of an intervention manual and finally, 4. the development of cost-benefit evaluation indicators. The data are drawn from two small indigenous communities located in the arid zone of Valle del Mezquital, in the state of Hidalgo, 300 km from Mexico City. Various strategies drawn from qualitative methods were used in the different phases, i.e. individual interviews with key informants and community members, focus groups, field notes, cognitive laboratories, and the application of semi-structured and structured questionnaires. Different factors were identified as potential challenges for intervention: The existence of a patriarchal organization, fear of gossip, the different perceptions of alcohol consumption, linguistic connotations, poverty, time constraints, and the right not to inform the participants exert. It is crucial to increase awareness in order to improve well-being through various means. Women must be offered alternative responses to a dominant patriarchal structure, by helping them overcome the fear of discussing their problems, taking care not to offend their traditions and encouraging mechanisms that will weaken the power of gossip. Likewise, men must be convinced of the harmfulness of alcohol consumption and its effects on the family.

Resumen: El alcohol se reconoce como una de las drogas psicotrópicas que se consumen en casi todas las culturas. El estudio del consumo de alcohol en las comunidades indígenas y rurales desde la perspectiva antropológica resalta el papel del alcohol en la cohesión social y tiende a minimizar las consecuencias del consumo. Esta investigación adopta un paradigma complementario que considera el incremento significativo en la disponibilidad del alcohol y la excesiva promoción que recibe, así como la falta de servicios de apoyo para atender otros problemas sociales, económicos e incluso religiosos que se relacionan con el consumo. Al menos dos grupos son afectados por el consumo excesivo de alcohol: los bebedores y su núcleo social más cercano, es decir, la familia, y ambos requieren atención. El objetivo de este artículo es describir el proceso que se siguió para adaptar al contexto indígena un modelo de intervención breve para apoyar a las familias de los consumidores. La intervención se basa en el modelo estrés-tensión-enfrentamiento-apoyo, y ha mostrado ser útil para ayudar a las familias a lidiar con los dilemas que enfrentan en relación con el consumo de alcohol de alguno de sus integrantes. El proceso de adaptación consta de cuatro fases de investigación: 1. factibilidad, que incluye una investigación etnográfica inicial, 2. adaptación de instrumentos y material psicodidáctico, 3. desarrollo de un manual de intervención, 4. desarrollo de indicadores para la evaluación del costo-beneficio. La información proviene de dos pequeñas comunidades localizadas en la región árida del Valle del Mezquital, en el estado de Hidalgo, a 300 km de la Ciudad de México. En la investigación se emplearon diferentes métodos cualitativos: entrevistas individuales con informantes clave y miembros de la comunidad, grupos focales, laboratorios cognitivos y la aplicación de cuestionarios semiestructurados y estructurados. Se identificaron diferentes retos para la intervención; entre ellos, la existencia de una estructura de organización patriarcal, el temor al chisme, las percepciones del consumo de alcohol, las connotaciones lingüísticas, la pobreza, las limitaciones de tiempo y el derecho a no informar que ejercen los participantes. Es crucial incrementar la conciencia en relación con la necesidad de lograr mayor bienestar. También es necesario ofrecer a las mujeres respuestas alternativas frente a la estructura patriarcal dominante sin transgredir sus tradiciones ni debilitar el poder del chisme. Por último se requiere sensibilizar a los hombres respecto a los daños que se asocian al consumo excesivo de alcohol y la forma en que éste afecta a la familia.

Adaptación al contexto ñahñú del Cuestionario de Enfrentamientos (CQ), la Escala de Síntomas (SRT) y la Escala de Depresión del Centro de Estudios Epidemiológicos (CES-D)

resumen está disponible en el texto completo

SUMMARY The present paper is a part of a broader research project aimed at adapting a brief intervention model to help families cope with substance abuse for its application to an indigenous population. Due to cultural differences between urban and indigenous contexts, the adaptation of psychological instruments to assess the intervention outcomes is a major need. Poortinga and Van de Vijver point out that transferring an instrument from the cultural group where it has been designed to another group is a common and economic practice; however, it can lead to invalid conclusions. For this reason, the adaptation must be pursued according to a thorough systematic process in order to develop reliable, understandable, and culture-sensitive instruments. Cognitive laboratories are among the different methods to evaluate instruments previous to its final application. Its main utility is to generate information about the quality of an instrument and about the way a single question is interpreted, accepted or rejected in different cultural groups. The objective of this article is to adapt the Coping Questionnaire (CQ), the Symptom Rating Test (SRT) and the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) for its use in indigenous population through the cognitive laboratories method. The main interest is to develop instruments to assess psychological distress and how people cope with excessive drinking in the Mezquital Valley. To accomplish this objective, a two-phase study was carried out. Language adaptation for all three instruments was completed in phase 1, while the validation and identification of the psychometric properties of the new version took place during phase 2. The study was carried out in a community located in Municipio del Cardonal, Hidalgo, where around 60% of the population aged 5 or older speak an indigenous language, mainly Otomi also known as Ñahñu. The participants in phase 1 were 43 bilingual (Spanish-Ñahñu) women aged between 16 and 60 years, whose main activity was housekeeping. Women were contacted at community meetings, and they agreed to participate voluntarily once the objectives of the study were explained. They were also asked to authorize the recording of the interviews. The language adaptation was performed through the concurrent probing method of cognitive laboratory in its individual modality. Each one of the original items and answer options were read aloud as many times as needed. Immediately following the response, every participant was asked: What does this question mean?, Could you rephrase it?, How would you explain this question to another person in your community?. All comments were taken into account to rewrite each item. The instructions of all three questionnaires were also simplified to facilitate understanding. As a result of this procedure, the phrasing of 26 out of the 30 items of the CQ changed. The way the SRT questions were written was adjusted so that they could be used in an interview, which is why nearly all the items were modified. As for the CES-D, 9 items were modified, while 11 remained as in the original. Through this method, versions that were easier to understand were achieved, since commonly used terms among the population being studied were incorporated, which in turn reduced the time required to apply the three questionnaires. During the second phase, the researchers proceeded to validate the final version of the three instruments with a non-probabilistic study of 191 women who were contacted in the health center of the municipal head town; these were inhabitants of 30 of the 92 communities comprising the Municipio del Cardonal. All of them spoke Spanish, 65.8% were aged between 26 and 45 (X=35.2, SD=10.05), 29.5% had completed their primary school studies, while 26% had finished junior high school. Their main activity was housekeeping (69.9%), while 78.5% of the interviewees said they were in close contact with a person who drank heavily. The three instruments were applied individually by a previously trained psychologist and nurse, which took an average of 25 minutes. The power of discrimination of each item was determined. Those in which no significant differences were found between groups at either end of the spectrum were excluded from the factorial analyses. Factorial analyses were undertaken for the main components using Oblimin rotation to obtain the factorial structure of each instrument and eventually the overall internal reliability and that of each sub-scale was obtained. In the case of the CQ, the best solution was obtained by testing a 27-item structure distributed among three factors that explained 41.6% of the variance (23.6%, 10.5% and 7.4%, respectively). The first of these, called assertive engagement, includes 11 items that ex- plore coping styles such as control, tolerance, assertiveness and support for the users, which have a reliability rate of .8147. The second factor, called emotional engagement consists of 12 items referring to emotional reactions, avoidance and inaction, with a reliability rate of .8411. The third factor consists of four items referring to actions involving the search for independence, with a reliability rate of .6689. Cronbach's alpha for the overall scale was .8707. The final version of the SRT consisted of 29 items. Two factors were obtained that explained 32.5% of the total variance (26.3% and 6.2%, respectively). The first of these comprises 17 items exploring physical health, the reliability of this scale being .8557. The second factor consists of 12 items that explore psychological aspects, which together obtained a reliability rate of .8222. The reliability of the 29-item scale was .9012, while the total mean was 19.4 (SD=9.7). The adapted version of the CES-D consists of 19 items (alpha=. 9105) comprising three factors. Factor 1 comprises 11 items which together had a reliability of .9031 and which is known as negative affect. Factor 2 consists of five items that explore interpersonal relations, with a reliability rate of .7581. The structure of the third factor, consisting solely of three items, includes symptoms related to positive affect, the reliability of these three items being .6051. The methodology of cognitive laboratories proved extremely useful in translating the items into an equivalent language without affecting the validity and reliability of the instruments, since the statistical analyses show that the adapted versions of the instruments have appropriate psychometric characteristics, with acceptable reliability levels. As for the factorial analysis, the factorial structure of the CQ reported by Orford et al. was not corroborated. Nevertheless, the structure found in this study provides a better reflection of the way alcohol consumption problems are dealt with in this population where actions tending towards independence are uncommon, while emotional engagement strategies are much more frequent. At the same time, the SRT structure proved very similar to that mentioned in other research conducted in Mexico. The highest percentages of answers on the scale of physical symptoms agree with other studies that document a high degree of somatization among Mexican women. The CES-D structure was found to differ from Radloff 's original, although the behavior of positive affect items was very similar to that found among Mexican women of rural origin from Jalisco and female teenagers from Zacatecas. The findings of this study should be regarded cautiously, since the sample from which the data were taken is not representative of the Otomi population. However, they help to distinguish certain particularities of the way depressive symptomatology is expressed in women of Ñahñu origin and to increase knowledge of the cultural variations of coping.

La influencia de la historia familiar de consumo de alcohol en hombres y mujeres / The influence of family history on alcohol intake in males and females

Objetivo. Evaluar el riesgo para el uso excesivo de etanol en personas con historia familiar positiva de consumo de alcohol (HF+). Material y métodos. Los datos corresponden a una muestra de población general (n= 8 890) y fueron recopilados a partir de una encuesta nacional de adicciones en población urbana de México, realizada en 1988. Se determinaron medidas epidemiológicas de frecuencia y asociación considerando los antecedentes de HF+ como factor de exposición. Resultados. La prevalencia actual del consumo consuetudinario de alcohol fue de 13.7 por ciento para los hombres y 0.6 por ciento para las mujeres, las cifras para el síndrome de dependencia fueron 9.9 por ciento para hombres y 0.6 por ciento para las mujeres. Los hombres con HF+ tienen dos veces más probabilidad de desarrollar el síndrome de dependencia que aquellos con HF-. La razón de momios en el grupo de mujeres fue de 1.27. Conclusiones. Se observaron patrones diferenciales por sexo en la transmisión de problemas de consumo. El consumo de los padres representa un factor de riesgo importante para el desarrollo del síndrome de dependencia de los hijos. El texto completo en inglés de este artículo está disponible en: http://www.insp.mx/salud/index.html